Life course, crime and interventions
Co-ordinator: Prof. dr. mr. C.C.J.H. Bijleveld
The recurrent theme in the research carried out in Theme Group 3 is formed by the concepts of life course and intervention. What is meant by life course is the development of antisocial and criminal behaviour from early childhood to well into adulthood. The development of criminal careers and the personal, educational/upbringing, environmental and social factors that are relevant to this development are being studied in order to be able to differentiate between qualitatively different criminal careers and to find explanations for those differences. A special point of attention is the intergenerational transfer of crime behaviour.
The term intervention includes a gamut of factors that may influence behaviour. On the one hand, these are interventions that are formal, and based on criminal law, semi-criminal law, administrative law, and disciplinary regulations with the intention of preventing, ending or at least shortening criminal careers. On the other hand informal interventions such as upbringing, corrective actions by teachers at school, and those that are taken in the neighbourhood, at work, in social life etc. Better insight into the processes that take place and the action of various factors can lead to more effective prevention and intervention programmes.
The mutual bond between the various research projects in Theme Group 3 is expressed in two ways: the longitudinal nature, and the research methods and data collection. All projects examine (retrospectively or prospectively) one or more phases in the life course and/or study the consequences of a particular type of intervention. Furthermore, we are striving to reach variety in quantitative and qualitative research methods. In addition to surveys, interviews, observations, dossier analysis, recording of life histories, and such are conducted. Given the longitudinal nature of the studies undertaken, there are repeated measurements. We hope to achieve innovation through the use of randomised control trials for the measurement of effects of certain interventions.
Projects
The dynamics of (delinquent) peers and delinquent behavior in adolescence
drs. Kim Megens, prof. dr. Gerben Bruinsma (promotor), dr. Frank Weerman (co-promotor)
This project focuses on the influence of peers in explaining changes in delinquent behavior through adolescence. The relationship between delinquent peers and one’s own delinquent behavior has long been recognized. Although this relationship has been supported in several studies (Patterson & Dishion, 1985; Elliot & Menard, 1996; Cairns & Cairns, 1994; Dishion, 1996; Matsueda & Anderson, 1998; Warr, 2002; Weerman, 2004), the meaning and interpretation is still much debated. Many researchers have suggested that delinquent peer associations foster delinquent behavior. Moreover, it is argued that peers are a potential key to understand the etiology of delinquent behavior (Sutherland, 147; Akers, 1973; Warr, 2002). Rather than placing peers at the core of causal explanations, Gottfredson and Hirschi (1991) for example join Glueck and Glueck (1950) in suggesting the relationship can be explained by a process of social selection.
Longitudinal self-report data is used in this study to analyze the changes in time spent with peers and delinquency during adolescence. Respondents are questioned among other things about delinquent behavior and time spent with peers. Furthermore, self-reports of parents and best friend will be used. Four measurements a year enable us to represent the changes over time more accurately. This research project addresses several questions: What is the relative influence of peers in explaining gender differences in delinquent behavior in (early) adolescence? How is parental control related to the association with (delinquent) peers and delinquent behavior of adolescents? Are changes in time spent with peers related to changes in delinquent behavior? To what extent are there changes in the part peers play in co-offending?
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Social-emotional development and delinquency
drs. Menno Enzinga, prof.dr. M. Westenberg (Universiteit Leiden), prof. dr. mr. Catrien Bijleveld, dr. Frank Weerman
This project aims to investigate the impact of socio-emotional development of adolescents and the development of criminal behaviour. Psychological approaches to childrens’ and adolescents’ personality development appear important in explaining delinquency. So far, however, the potential of such theories in explaining criminal behaviour has been understudied, nor have such theories been studied in conjunction with other criminogenic factors such as the role of peers.
This study is explores the potential of Loevinger’s theory of socio-emotional development in explaining changes in delinquent behaviour. The model looks promising, as the cross-sectional association between socio-emotional development and delinquency has been found in various studies.
In this longitudinal project, two questionnaires are used. The first is a self-report questionnaire on delinquent behaviour, the second the Zinnen Aanvul Lijst Curium (ZALC). The sample consists of secondary school students at VMBO-level. The ZALC was administered in 2002 and 2004. In 2002, 2003 and 2004 the self-report questionnaire was administered.
The project started fall 2002 as a PhD project in collaboration with Leiden University. It is part of the larger project Network formation and adolescent delinquency (see project 3)
The PhD ceremony takes place in November 2008.
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Network formation and adolescent delinquency
dr. Frank Weerman, prof. dr. Peter van der Laan, prof. dr. mr. Catrien Bijleveld
The aim of this study is to understand the role of peers in the development of problem- and delinquent behaviour in adolescents. For that, we study how students’ social networks in secondary schools are related to their problem- and delinquent behaviour. We distinguish between the extent to which students in networks influence each other’s behaviour and the extent to which students choose to be a member of network for the network members’ behaviour. We disagrregate this for different kinds of delinquent acts and of different kinds of networks (f.i. friends and best friends)
We are the first to test certain hypotheses from Moffitt’s 'dual taxonomy' theory (1993). This theory predicts that 'persistent' problematic youths are with their ‘mature’ behaviour a role model for others, after which the latter will exhibit temporary, ‘adolescence-limited’, problem behaviour. We will test this hypothesis against rivalling hypotheses from other criminological theories (Sutherland, 1947; Gotfredson and Hirschi, 1990).
The study if part of a repeated survey among secondary school students. In this survey, we investigate the social networks of students. Students are asked to indicate with whom they interact a lot and with whom most from a numbered list with all students from the same school. For first year students we investigate which context have only developed at this school so that the actual formation of the network can be outlined. A self-report questionnaire asks after delinquent behaviour; it also asks after the starting age of this behaviour so that adolescence-limited and persistent problem youth can be distinguished.
In 2007, a fourth wave was added to the data collection, so that the criminal career data extend into early adulthood.
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Juvenile sex offenders
prof. dr. mr. Catrien Bijleveld, dr. Jan Hendriks (de Waag)
This project aims to investigate the problems and criminal careers of juvenile sex offenders, en to assess the effectiveness of treament. Juvenile sex offenders are an understudied group. At the same time, it appears that a relevant proportion of adult sex offenders often started offending sexually at an early age. Juvenile sex offenders are not an easy research object as they form an heterogeneous group: juvenile sex offenders may offend alone or in a group, against children, or against peers. Each type of juvenile sex offender has a particular set of distinguishing characteristics and aetiology. A second complication is that the group is in a statistical sense small. Thirdly, the base rate of sexual recidivism is low.
Using consecutive studies on cohorts of juvenile sex offenders, we attempt to gather data on a sample of sufficient size to carry out analyses. In each study we use the same format to study a broad array of pertinent characteristics, looking at demographic and social variables, personality characteristics, moral development and conscience formation. Information on criminal careers is gathered retrospectively before the sampling offence (self-reported as well as convictions), and prospectively from the sampling offence (convictions). The study is not only of academic interest, but also relevant for early risk assessment and intervention. Using propensity score matching we assess the effectiveness of (cognitive) behavioural therapy, on sexual as well violent and general recidivism. The project is carried out in collaboration with dr. Jan Hendriks (FORA/De Waag).
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Criminal careers and criminal lives of adults
dr. mr. Arjan Blokland, Rianne van Os, MSc., prof. dr. Paul Nieuwbeerta
The central question in this project is how criminal careers develop over the life-course, and how this development can be explained. The international literature reasons from three perspectives to explain this question. Within the criminal careers-perspective properties of the criminal behaviour itself are emphasized such as starting age, frequency, seriousness and duration of the criminal behaviour. These various aspects warrant distinct explanatory mechanisms: so, aspects that influence the nature of offending do not necessarily impact frequency as well. Career criminals receive particular attention within this perspective. A second perspective is the life-course perspective, in which criminal behaviour is viewed as an integral part of an individual’s development in various domains as he or she ages. The underlying idea is that the developments on these various domains influence each other. So, the transition from school to the labour market, to marriage and family formation influence offending, while offending influences labour market participation and the chances for an intimate relationship.
Within the last perspective, the developmental perspective, the nature of the offending behaviour is of particular interest. Patterns of delinquent behaviour are identified and explained. Offenders can be distinguished into disjunct groups of offenders with distinct developmental paths. Knowing and understanding those paths is a precondition to be able to intervene early and effectively.
Within this project we use a 4% sample of all cases that were dealt with in last instance in 1977 in the Netherlands. Using information from electronic rap sheets we map respondents’ criminal careers. In addition, we use information from the centralized municipal registrations. because of the long period over which data have been collected (1977-2002), the dataset is eminently suited to analyse desistance.
The three theoretical perspectives are employed in analysing criminal careers of the sample members. Important research questions are how long and up to what age respondents are criminally active, what the frequency of offending is in active offenders, whether different aspects of criminal behaviour are influence by different factors, what characteristics distinguish chronic from incidental offenders, to what extent other life domains influence criminal behaviour and whether such influence are the same for different types of offenders, whether different developmental paths can be distinguished and whether criminal behaviour specializes or escalates over the life course.
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Life courses and criminal careers of homicide offenders and their victims
prof. dr. Paul Nieuwbeerta
This project investigates to what extent the life course and criminal career impact on the probability to become a homicide offender or victim. In addition, it is investigated to what extent and how interventions (detention, PIJ, TBS, etc.) influence the later life course and criminal careers of homicide offenders.
To answer such questions, data are needed on homicide offenders and their victims. Remarkably enough, preciously little is known in the Netherlands on this most serious kind of violence. Also, no systematic overviews exist.
Therefore, firstly an overview is compiled in this project on all homicides in the Neterlands since 1992, that lists trends in incidence and properties of homicides. The overview is based on the existing Moord en Doodslag Monitor, that contains information on all approximately 2,500 homicides since 1992, on victims, offenders and the incidents themselves. The information has been compiled from various sources (police, prosecution, press reports etc.).
Next, the project focuses on risk factors for homicide offending and victimisation, and on determinants of the effects of interventions, with special attention to life courses and criminal careers. Data to be analysed come from central Prosecution database, electronic rap sheets and police and court files. For a prospective substudy, we will use the data on all persons convicted for homicide in (see project 5).
Three substudies are planned. In a first substudy we will investigate the criminal careers of offenders convicted for murder. We will compare the life course and criminal career of murderers with those of other offenders, disaggregating for different types of murderers (parricide, partner murder, robbery-murders etc.). This substudy is retrospective.
The second planned substudy has a prospective design. We will investigate life courses and criminal careers of homicide offenders convicted in 1977, looking at the extent to which certain risk- and protective factors (personal circumstances, previous criminal career, type and nature of sanction) influence later developments.
A third substudy focuses on adolescent homicide offenders. During the past 10 years, approximately 100 homicides were committed by offenders aged 12-17 years. We will investigate their previous history, and risk factors that may have contributed to the seriousness of their offence. We will also investigate how their cases have been dealt with and what sanctions were imposed.
In this study we collaborate with the ‘Moord en Zeden’ programme of the Divisie Centrale Informatie (CRI) of the Korps Landelijke Politiediensten (KLPD), the department ‘Rechtsbescherming en Veiligheid’ of the ‘Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek’ (CBS) and the ‘Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek- en Documentatiecentrum’ (WODC) of the Netherlands Ministry of Justice.
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Intergenerational transmission of delinquency
prof. dr. mr. Catrien Bijleveld, drs. Victor van der Geest
In this project we study delinquent behaviour in a number of Dutch families over 5 generations. Starting from 200 boys who were placed in a reform school in 1911, we have information on delinquency by their parents, children, grandchildren and great-grandchildren, biological as well as non-biological. Information on offending was found in archives and electronic rap sheets archives. Then same information is available for age-matched controls, as well as for the partners of all these persons. The sample thus contains about 11,000 respondents. In addition we have information, for all men called into military service, from their medical checkups.
Using these data we investigate how a delinquent parent increases the risk for delinquency in his or her offspring, disaggregating by gender and by type of delinquency. Next, we investigate how this ‘transmission’ of delinquency can be explained, looking at socialisation and exposure theories (nurture) and biological theories (nature). We also investigate the effects of education and profession, and we look at the effect of separation from the parent (through death, divorce or detention) on delinquency risk.
In this project we collaborate with prof. Adrian Raine (Univ. Pennsylvania), and with dr. Joe Murray and prof. David Farrington (University of Cambridge).
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Criminal careers and socialisation of high risk males
drs. Victor van der Geest, prof. dr. mr. Catrien Bijleveld, dr. mr. Arjan Blokland
In this project we study for 270 high-risk men and 270 age-matched controls how their criminal careers develop from ages 12-34. Using group based trajectory modelling we investigate whether distinct groups can be distinguished with particular criminal careers. Next we investigate whether these groups also differ in terms of background and personality characteristics, and in terms of the kinds of offences they commit.
For the 270 high risk men we also know whether they have been married, had children, divorced, whether they held jobs and whether they had addiction problems (to drugs, alcohol or gambling). Next, we will attempt to link the development of criminal behaviour to these dynamic predictors, that each represent a certain domain of social adaptation or social capital. In doing so, we will also attempt any reciprocal effects.
The project should lead to a dissertation in 2010. In this project we collaborate with the Department of Econometrics VU University Amsterdam (prof. dr. Siem Jan Koopman, prof. dr. Kees van Montfort, dr. Marius Ooms) as well as with prof. dr. Daniel Nagin, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh.
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Effectiveness of imprisonment
Hilde Wermink, dr. mr. Arjan Blokland, prof. dr. Paul Nieuwbeerta
On a yearly basis approximately 50,000 offenders are imprisoned in the Netherlands. One of the goals of imprisoning offenders is to reduce recidivism. The aim of the current project is to assess the relative effect of imprisonment and alternative sanctions on the delinquent development of the offender. The research project is part of a collaboration between NSCR and Scientific Research and Documentation Centre (WODC). The effect of imprisonment on recidivism is researched separately for juveniles and adults. This project is of great importance since we derive contradicting hypotheses from criminological theory about the effect of imprisonment on recidivism. Furthermore, extremely little empirical research has been conducted about the relative effect of imprisonment and alternative sanctions. The research that has been conducted shows serious shortcomings, since most research does not account for the selection processes that tend to take place. Offenders sentenced to prison differ on several characteristics from offenders sentenced to community service. To assess the effect of imprisonment we make use of longitudinal data from official criminal records of all people convicted in the Netherlands in 1997. Data is available for each convicted offender in 1997 on the number of convictions per year starting at age 12 up to the year 2005. In order to optimally account for selection processes we use the combined method ‘group based trajectory models’ and ‘propensity score matching’.
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Criminal careers and organized crime
Vere van Koppen, MSc., prof. dr. Paul Nieuwbeerta (promotor), dr. Christianne de Poot (WODC, co-promotor)
Research on life-course criminology expanded in the past decade and produced a number of interesting findings on criminal careers. However, traditional criminal career research particularly focuses on offenders of high volume crime. The majority of research is on juvenile offenders, and already filters out particular types of crime most likely to be committed at older ages. As early as 1940, Sutherland marked the importance of recognizing different kinds of crime, especially others than common street crime. For example, recent studies show that white-collar offenders do not fit currently accepted offending patterns (Leeper Piquero and Benson, 2004).
Organized crime is argued to differ from high volume crime on some important aspects. Kleemans and De Poot (2008) emphasize various differences between organized and high volume crime that can explain differences in criminal careers. They use the term social opportunity structure to refer to the importance of social relationships and the access they give to organized crime. Also, they point to the relative complexity and logistic requirements of the crimes committed by criminal groups. A great deal of organized crime is transnational, opposed to the national orientation of most high volume crimes. Recent research shows that older offenders are overrepresented in organized crime (Kleemans and De Poot, 2007, 2008). Offenders and offences in organized crime may shed a different light on life-course criminology and widely accepted conclusions. So far, the majority of knowledge about criminal careers in organized crime is based on ego-documents (e.g., Bowden, 2001; Powell, 2000; Steffensmeier and Ulmer, 2005).
This project aims to investigate criminal careers of individuals who become involved in organized crime on a particular moment in their lives. As part of the Dutch Organized Crime Monitor, 120 criminal investigations on criminal groups are analyzed extensively, resulting in a lot of information not only on the criminal groups, but also on the offenders involved. This information is coupled with their rap sheets, abstracted from the Dutch Judicial Documentation System. Different criminal ancestries before the index case in organized crime can be distinguished within this group of offenders, using group-based trajectory modelling. Offenders following different developmental paths can be compared on various characteristics.
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